INTRODUCTION. Soft tissue trauma initiates a complex cascade of immune responses in regional lymph nodes (LNs). Macrophages (CD68⁺ cells) play a key role in these processes.
OBJECTIVE. To identify patterns in the dynamics and zonal distribution of CD68⁺ macrophages in the rat in-guinal LN at various time points after soft tissue injury.
MATERIALS AND METHODS. The experiment was performed on 50 mature male Wistar rats (weight 220–250 g). A model of soft tissue injury to the thigh was used. Animals were euthanized on days 1, 3, 7, and 14 after trauma (10 animals per time point), with the control group (n=10) consisting of intact rats. In the LNs, CD68⁺, CD3⁺, CD19⁺, Ki67⁺, bcl-2⁺, and p53⁺ cells were detected in 8 structural and functional zones: cortex (C), pri-mary lymphoid nodules (PLN), secondary lymphoid nodules (SLN), paracortical zone (PCZ), medullary cords (MC), subcapsular marginal sinus (SMS), perinodular sinus (PNS), and medullary sinus (MS). Statistical analy-sis was performed using nonparametric methods: Kruskal–Wallis test, Dunn's test, Spearman's correlation analysis, Jonckheere–Terpstra test, cluster analysis, and multiple regression (R environment 4.3.2).
RESULTS. Heterogeneity in the dynamics of CD68⁺ macrophages was revealed depending on the LN zone. Maximum changes were recorded in the PCZ on days 3 and 7, followed by a subsequent decrease. In the SMS, the peak also occurred on day 3, with a sharp drop in macrophage count observed on day 1, likely related to their migration deeper into the node. In the MC, maximal accumulation of CD68⁺ cells were noted on day 3, with subsequent normalization by day 14. The MS demonstrated a consistently elevated level of CD68 from day 3 to day 14. Correlation analysis revealed strong associations of CD68 with CD3⁺ T cells in the PCZ (r=0.81; p<0.001) and with CD19⁺ B cells in the MC (r=0.77; p<0.001), as well as with the proliferation marker Ki67 (r=0.88 in the PCZ) and with p53 in the SMS (r=0.84; p<0.001). The regression model confirmed that the main predictors of CD68 accumulation in the PCZ were CD3⁺ cells (β=0.62; p<0.001) and proliferating lympho-cytes (β=0.48; p<0.001). Cluster analysis divided the zones into three groups according to the pattern of CD68 dynamics: highly reactive (PCZ, SMS), moderately reactive (MC, MS), and inert (C, PLN, and SLN).
CONCLUSION. The macrophage response exhibits a strictly zonal and phase-dependent pattern. The PCZ functions as a command center where macrophages cooperate with T lymphocytes to initiate the adaptive immune response. The SMS serves as the «entry gate», where macrophages undergo apoptosis after antigen processing. The MC acts as an effector field where macrophages support plasmablastic transformation of B cells. The revealed heterogeneity in the response of different LN zones underscores their functional speciali-zation and should be considered when interpreting immunomorphological changes.

INTRODUCTION. The maxillary artery exhibits significant anatomical variability affecting clinical outcomes in otorhinolaryngology, neurosurgery, and maxillofacial surgery.
OBJECTIVE. This study aimed to provide a systematic morphometric characterization of the artery and its branches based on cadaveric dissection and angiographic imaging.
MATERIALS AND METHODS. Twelve heads preparations were dissected using fresh-frozen specimens with preliminary silicone arterial injection to document branching patterns, vessel diameters, and lengths accord-ing to Terminologia Anatomica. Twenty-eight digital subtraction angiograms were analyzed for in vivo meas-urement validation. Vessels were classified according to their relationship with m. pterygoideus lateralis.
RESULTS. Three main anatomical variants were identified: superficial (54.2%), deep (37.5%), and transptery-goid (8.3%). Mean proximal diameter was 2.94±0.48 mm, decreasing to 1.66±0.35 mm distally (43.5% reduc-tion). Sexual dimorphism was detected: in males D₀ was 3.12±0.44 mm versus 2.71±0.42 mm in females (p=0.012). A strong correlation was found between the initial diameter and the diameters of all major branch-es (r=0.52–0.73, p<0.001). Angiographic validation confirmed high concordance with cadaveric data (r=0.84, p<0.001).
CONCLUSION. Detailed morphometric characterization of the maxillary artery and its branches provides clin-ically relevant data for surgical planning, epistaxis management, and interventional procedures. The identi-fied sex differences and variant-specific morphometric parameters should be considered during preoperative assessment.

INTRODUCTION. Autophagy is a key mechanism for the removal of damaged organelles in neurons, and its dysfunction underlies aging and the pathogenesis of many neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's disease. However, the specific features of the autophagic response in different hippocampal regions that ex-hibit selective vulnerability in Alzheimer's disease remain poorly understood.
OBJECTIVE. The aim of this study was to comprehensively evaluate autophagy markers in neurons of the CA1 and CA2 zones of the human hippocampus during physiological aging and Alzheimer's disease.
MATERIALS AND METHODS. The work was performed on autopsy material from young patients (35-45 years old, n=20), elderly patients without neurodegenerative pathology (>85 years old, n=20), and patients with Alzheimer's disease (Braak stage 3-4, >85 years old, n=15). Markers of ubiquitin, pS65-Ub, TOMM20, SQSTM1/p62, Beclin-1, LC3b, and LAMP2 were determined immunohistochemically, and staining intensity in the neuronal perikarya was assessed.
RESULTS. It was found that, with age, compensatory activation of autophagy markers is absent in the CA1 zone against the background of accumulation of the adapter protein p62, whereas in the CA2 zone, an in-crease in Beclin-1 and LAMP2 is observed with a decrease in the number of mature autophagosomes (LC3b). In Alzheimer's disease, a decrease in the number of initiation complexes containing Beclin-1 and accumula-tion of autophagosomes (LC3b) are observed in both zones; however, in the CA2 zone, a decrease in the amounts of LAMP2 and p62 is additionally recorded, indicating a block in the terminal stages of autophagy.
CONCLUSION. The obtained data indicate pronounced zonal heterogeneity of the autophagic response in the hippocampus both during aging and in Alzheimer's disease. The identified differences in the autophagy pro-cess in the CA1 and CA2 zones confirm the need for a differentiated approach to the selection of targeted drugs for the treatment of neurodegenerative changes.

INTRODUCTION. Autism is a complex complex diagnosis caused by impaired development of the nervous system, characterized by a persistent deficit of social communication and social interaction in various contexts. According to statistics, the prevalence of autism has increased over the past few decades. This state of affairs makes it necessary for scientists to study the factors of autism in more detail. Despite the importance of the blood-brain barrier (BBB), its mechanobiology in autism remains the focus of research. The systematization of this knowledge will allow us to improve innovative approaches to further study of this disorder for better diagnosis and individual approach to patients with autism in clinical practice.
OBJECTIVE to analyze the modern scientific literature devoted to the study of the morphofunctional features of BBB in autism in order to systematize the accumulated knowledge and understanding the etiopathogenetic nuances of this disease.
MATERIALS AND METHODS. The information for the creation of this review was searched through the scientific literature databases of the library eLibrary, Google Scholar, PubMed and Springer Nature.
Results and discussion. The issue of morphofunctional changes in the blood-brain barrier in autism is considered. The analyzed publications show that multifactorial changes have been established in various functional links of the blood-brain barrier. Among many others, the most important are endothelial damage, systemic neuroinflammation with massive release of inflammatory mediators, oxidative stress, neurovascular damage, and migration of immune cells.
CONCLUSION. When analyzing the sources of scientific literature, it becomes obvious that significant progress has been made in knowledge about changes and dysfunction of the BBB in the role of the etiopathogenesis of autism. The systematization and structuring of the scientific data obtained made it possible to establish complex multifactorial changes in various functional links of the BBB. Undoubtedly, BBB in autism is characterized by reduced selectivity, but along with this, violations of intercellular contacts in endothelial cells, dysfunction of astroglia and microglia, as well as the lack of constant supply of essential amino acids from the periphery to the brain tissues were revealed.

INTRODUCTION. Currently, driven by the demands of clinical medicine (abdominal, thoracic, gynecological, plastic and reconstructive surgery, oncology), the study of the morphology, plasticity, reactive and adaptive functions of the greater omentum remains highly relevant. In the literature, these lymphoid aggregates in the greater omentum are commonly referred to as milky spots. Inasmuch as the greater omentum represents a common site of metastatic dissemination, the investigation of its lymphoid structures is of paramount im-portance.
OBJECTIVE: a review of the foreign and national scientific literature on the milky spots of the greater omen-tum, which are an important component of immune surveillance within the peritoneal cavity.
MATERIALS AND METHODS. The study involved a systematic review of the foreign and national scientific literature followed by a comprehensive analysis of the compiled data. Publications covering clinical observa-tions, pathological studies, and data on the relationship between milky spots and various pathologies were se-lected for the analysis.
RESULTS. Current research demonstrates that lymphoid aggregates are actively involved in the immune re-sponse, providing defense against infections and inflammatory processes. The microstructure of these aggre-gates comprises a variety of cellular components, among which lymphocytes, macrophages and dendritic cells predominate interacting to drive complex mechanisms of the immune response. The greater omentum has unique biological properties including neovascularization, hemostasis, tissue healing and regeneration, while also serving as an in vivo incubator for cell and tissue cultivation. Morphological studies conducted on various models confirm the importance of milky spots in maintaining homeostasis and their involvement in the path-ogenesis of different diseases. Potential pathogenic mechanisms that may affect the function of these aggre-gates are discussed.
CONCLUSION. This work underscores the critical need for further research to fully understand the role of milky spots in immune responses and to evaluate their clinical significance.

This article is dedicated to the memorial date of Professor Lev Etingen