According to the data of electron microscopy of chemically fixed material preparations, the surface of the anterior corneal epithelium is formed by myriads of microvilli. Smoothing of the surface of the anterior epithelium is attributed to the function of the tear film. As evidence confirming the existence of the tear film, interference patterns observed under certain conditions on the surface of the cornea are cited, which explain this optical phenomenon by the reflection of light from the anterior and posterior surfaces of the lipid layer of the tear film. In histological preparations of material cryofixed in vivo, the tear film is identified with the homogeneous material above the microvilli of the flat cells of the third layer of the anterior epithelium. It is assumed that the membrane-like structure on the surface of this homogeneous material may correspond to the lipid layer of the tear film. At the same time, the results of microscopy of cryostat section preparations prove that the anterior corneal epithelium consists of five cell layers. The fifth homogeneous layer consists of compacted rows of without nuclear cells. A thin membrane-like component is also present on its surface. There are no data on this membrane-like component of the anterior epithelium in the scientific literature. This means that a detailed description of the structure of the anterior corneal epithelium remains incomplete. The aim of the study was to obtain data on the membrane-like component of the anterior corneal epithelium. The material for the study was the eyes of a domestic pig (Sus scrofa domesticus). The method of the study was light microscopy. As a result of studying the sagittal cryostat sections of the cornea and imprint preparations from the surface of the cornea, the supra-epithelial layer of the anterior epithelium was visualized as a non-cellular component in the form of a film. The main elements of the film are microbubbles that outwardly resemble cell fragments and apoptotic bodies. We designated the non-cellular component as «supraepithelial film» layer. There is reason to believe that it is formed as a result of apoptosis of the surface cells of the anterior corneal epithelium in the liquid environment of the lacrimal fluid. To our knowledge, the published data are the first report of the presence of a non-cellular component in the form of a film on the surface of the anterior corneal epithelium. The structure and properties of the supraepithelial film are subject to comprehensive study to determine its role and significance in the physiology of the anterior epithelium. When discussing the nature of interference patterns on the corneal surface, the supraepithelial film present at the interface of two media (solid - anterior epithelium and liquid - lacrimal fluid), in our opinion, can be considered as the material basis of thin-film interference.

The epidermis and its derivatives, including hair follicles, as highly radiosensitive structures, serve as markers of the course of reparative histogenesis, which allows assessing the degree of tissue damage and their regenerative potential. The aim of the work was to conduct a comparative morphological analysis of reactive changes in the hair follicles of mouse skin in various experimental models. The object of the study was white outbred male mice aged 12 weeks and weighing 25-30 g. The animals were divided into two experimental groups corresponding to different irradiation models. Mice of the first group (n=20) were irradiated once with an absorbed dose of 14 Gray. Animals of the second group (n=20) were repeatedly exposed to X-ray irradiation of 1 Gray for 30 days, followed by a 20-day period without irradiation (18 Gray in total). Skin fragments taken on the 25th and 50th days were fixed in 10% buffered neutral formalin solution and processed according to the standard method for light microscopy. To count the number of hair follicles per unit area, the method for determining the degree of skin damage was adapted taking into account the phases of mouse hair growth. Visually, skin damage in all experimental animals is characterized by varying degrees of hyperemia and hair loss. In the animals of the first experimental model, significant disorganization of epidermal cells and hair follicles is detected. The number of hair follicles decreases by 33.1% compared to the initial value. Epithelial cells of the outer and inner root sheaths are deformed, the cells of the epithelial matrix of the hair are almost not visualized. The degree of damage to hair follicles is 100%. The morphological picture of the skin in mice of the second experimental group is characterized by less pronounced changes, the shape of the keratinocytes of the epidermis and hair follicles is preserved, the degree of one type histogenesis cells heteromorphy expression is reduced. The number of follicles decreases by 24.3% compared to the initial values, and the degree of their damage is 37.8%. The conducted study confirms the primary lesion of the most radiosensitive tissue elements of the skin with the further development of its complex damage. The study of changes in hair follicles showed the clarity and accessibility of assessing the degree of expression of reactive changes in the epithelial structures of the skin.

One of the key features of aging is the formation of the age-associated secretory phenotype i.e. SASP. It is characterized by the emergence of a persistent systemic low-level pro-inflammatory background, or inflammaging, and a shift in the balance of secretion of pro- and anti-inflammatory mediators towards pro-inflammatory ones with the formation of reactive oxygen species. Their excess leads to oxidative stress and is one of the factors in the initiation and progression of age-associated diseases, including Alzheimer's disease. Its pathogenesis has not been sufficiently studied, including due to the lack of relevant experimental models. Previously, we showed that long-term consumption of aluminum chloride (AlCl₃) initiates molecular biological changes characteristic of neurodegenerative processes, but only in old animals. However, the systemic effects of AlCl₃ on various organs and systems are extremely poorly described in the literature and without taking into account age-related changes. The aim of the work was to evaluate morphological changes in internal organs of mature and old male Wistar rats consuming AlCl₃ at a dose of 100 mg/kg/day for 60 days. AlCl₃ at a dose of 100 mg/kg/day for 60 days in mature and old rats does not lead to pathomorphological changes in the liver, kidneys, thymus and spleen. In the mature rats of the experimental group, an increase in the relative number of binuclear hepatocytes was observed compared to the control mature animals, while in old rats consuming AlCl₃, the relative number of non-epithelial cells was higher than in the comparison group. In both groups, a decrease in the volume fractions of light centers of the lymphoid nodules of the spleen was observed in old animals. Thus, consumption of aluminum chloride at a dose of 100 mg/kg/day for 60 days does not lead to toxic damage to the kidneys, liver and organs of the immune system, so the developed model can be used to study neurodegenerative processes.

Currently, many techniques to simulate acute widespread peritonitis on animals have been proposed, however, the creation of an adequate experimental model is still an unresolved problem of surgery. An important aspect of modeling is morphological control and evaluation of the developed models. The aim of the study was a morphological assessment of the condition of the peritoneum and tissues of the anterior abdominal wall during experimental modeling of diffuse fecal peritonitis in laboratory rats. In accordance with the aim of experimental research, a series of experiments on 20 white rats of the «Standard» breed weighing 200±50 g was made. Also, device for modeling peritonitis-vacuum laser intestinal perforator, which allows to fixed the intestinal wall and make an accurate perforation defect of a given diameter, the fabric of which is subsequently a pathological substrate for the development of a diffuse fecal peritonitis. During the experiment, fecal peritonitis developed in all 20 laboratory animals. Macroscopically and histologically, fragments of the tissue of the peritoneum parietal layer with the anterior abdominal wall and liver preparations were studied. Preparations of the peritoneum parietal layer (macroscopically - white), were represented by fibrous-elastic connective tissue with weak neutrophilic leucocytic and lymphocytic infiltration. In histological preparations, mature adipose tissue was observed in area under mesothelium, the muscle tissue of the anterior abdominal wall was in a state of coagulation necrosis with single lymphocytic infiltration, which can serve as indirect signs of the beginning of peritonitis. The liver on the section resembled a pattern of «nutmeg». In its preparations the general tissues architectonics it was preserved. Portal tracts were expanded, the latter as bile ducts and hepatic arteries had a typical structure, their stroma was performed by loose connective tissue, weakly infiltrated with lymphocytes, the integrity of the border plate was not disturbed. The combination of these processes with certain changes in the liver tissue, can be characterized as the initial stages of the inflammatory process in the abdominal cavity of animals.

Modern methods of medical imaging have contributed to the emergence of new technologies and trends in liver medicine – liver segmentation, which is the process of dividing the organ into functionally independent segments with an individual system of blood supply, venous outflow and excretion of bile and its volumetry (volume-metry – measurements and assessment of the functional volumes of the organ). Given the significant variability of the shape, size, volume, features of the blood supply not only of the liver as a whole, but also of each of its segments, performing accurate segmentation of this organ remains a complex task. The objective of the review is to analyze classical and alternative systems of liver segmentation, which are anatomical and functional models of the organ. Their advantages and disadvantages are highlighted. Particular attention is paid to radiation methods of liver visualization with consideration of the range of their capabilities and limitations in segmentation and volumetry. The material for the study was foreign and domestic literature sources of recent years. The sources were selected using the following keywords: liver, anatomy, liver segments, liver volumetry, transplantation and some others. A total of 50 sources were selected. The descriptive method of analysis was used. Liver segmentation and volumetry already allow solving a wide range of clinical problems, including preoperative planning of resections and transplants, assessment of the dynamics and effectiveness of treatment, as well as building prognostic models and training. The review presents the results of studies of the volumetric assessment of the functional reserve of an organ when planning operations and ways to increase it, discusses manual, semi-automatic and automatic methods of segmentation with their advantages and disadvantages. Particular emphasis is placed on the role of the development of segmentation and volumetry technologies in transplantology. In conclusion, unresolved problems are noted, which require improvement of visualization algorithms, consideration of anatomical variants in segmentation and liver volumetry with the fastest integration of artificial intelligence to improve the accuracy and speed of the analysis. Timely solution of a wide range of designated tasks will continue to contribute to the transformation of approaches in surgical hepatology, providing priority to safe and personalized.

In the scientific and practical aspect, the significance of the osteological and osteometry studies results in the field of identification of skeletal remains and identification of individuals in general is difficult to overestimate, despite the corresponding achievements of modern molecular and genetic methods. However, the labor intensity, cost and accuracy of the latter still leave much to be desired, and the effectiveness does not exceed the effectiveness of classical methods of forensic and archaeological diagnostics, therefore osteometry, both direct and X-ray, remains the «gold standard» for identifying bone elements of the human skeleton. The purpose of the study is to summarize the available data of domestic and foreign scientific literature on the quantitative anatomical variability of human metatarsal bones according to direct and indirect X-ray osteometry and its scientific and practical significance. The material for the study was foreign and domestic literature sources from 1983 to 2025. The inclusion criterion for the study was the presence of sources in certified databases, their indexing in domestic and world bibliographic databases of scientific data. The sources were selected by the following keywords: foot skeleton, metatarsu6, metatarsal bones, foot, human foot bones, osteometry, x-ray osteometry, foot computed tomography and some others. A total of 66 sources were selected. A descriptive method of analysis was used. Modern data on comparative anatomical features of variability of the foot skeleton and metapodia of humans and hominids are summarized. It is proven that anatomical variability of both direct and x-ray osteometry indices of the metatarsal bones of the human foot plays a significant role in the sex, age, height, and in some cases ethnic and racial characteristics identifying. The research results obtained in recent decades, in addition to their application for bio-identification in anthropology and forensic medicine, can be used to develop normal indicators necessary for the diagnosis of various diseases and conditions, as well as for planning surgical interventions and creating individualized orthopedic products.

Currently, for some branches of practical medicine (abdominal, thoracic, gynecological, reconstructive-plastic surgery, oncology), the study of the morphology, plasticity, reactive and adaptive functions of the greater omentum remains relevant. Since the greater omentum is a frequent site of metastases of various tumors, the study of its immune (lymphoid) structures is of particular relevance. The purpose of the study is a meta-analysis of modern scientific literature devoted to milky spots of the greater omentum, which are an important component of lymphoid tissue that participate in the intra-abdominal immune response. The materials and methods of the study included a systematic review of domestic and foreign scientific literature and analysis of the collected data. For the analysis, publications were selected that cover clinical observations, pathomorphological studies and data on the relationship of milky spots with various diseases. The review covers the anatomy, function of the greater omentum, morphology of the immune tissue of the greater omentum (lymphoid clusters - milky spots). Milky spots are located in the tissue of the greater omentum and perform important functions in the body's immune system. Studies show that these formations are actively involved in the immune response, providing protection against infections and inflammatory processes. The anatomy of milky spots includes a variety of cellular components, including lymphocytes, macrophages and dendritic cells that interact with each other, forming complex mechanisms of the immune response. Biological properties of the omentum include its ability to neovascularize, hemostasis, tissue healing and regeneration, as well as the function of an in vivo incubator for culturing cells and tissues. Some of these properties have long been noted in surgical practice and are used empirically in some therapeutic procedures. Morphological studies conducted on various models confirm the importance of milky spots in maintaining homeostasis and the development of pathogenesis of various diseases. Possible pathogenetic mechanisms that may influence the function of these lesions are discussed. This review highlights the importance of further research to fully understand the role of milky spots in immune activity and their clinical significance.

The article is dedicated to the 90th birthday of Professor Vladimir Shlyapnikov, a famous scientist, pathologist, teacher, and healthcare organizer. The article reveals the role of Vladimir Shlyapnikov in the development of pathology, higher medical education, and research work in the Soviet Russia. The professional activities of Professor Vladimir Shlyapnikov had a significant impact on the development of pathology as a science, the improvement of the educational process, and research activities in the field of morphology. Vladimir Shlyapnikov was born on April 22, 1935 in Saratov in a family of young doctors, the Shlyapnikov, Nikolay and Ekaterina. His father, Nikolay Shlyapnikov (1899-1970), was an assistant at the Department of Pathology at the Saratov State Medical Institute at that time and was the head of this department from 1938 to 1940. Later, the Shlyapnikov family moved to the city of Kuibyshev. A graduate of the Samara State Medical Institute in 1959, Vladimir, while still a student, spent five years engaged in research work in the field of morphology to study the embryonic development of the lungs, their segmental structure and innervation. During this time, he made seven reports at student scientific sessions in different cities, published abstracts of the reports and the first article «On the state of the nervous apparatus of the lungs in human fetuses aged two to six months» in a collection of scientific student papers. In November 1958, he made a scientific report on the segmental structure of the lungs and the development of segments in the human fetus. Then Vladimir Shlyapnikov studied in the graduate school of the Sechenov First Moscow State Medical Institute in the Pathology Department, headed by Professor Anatoly Strukov. From 1965 to 1978 he worked at the Kuibyshev State Medical Institute as a Professor of the Pathology Department, head of the Central Scientific Research Laboratory, and vice-rector for teaching work. The Kuibyshev State Medical Institute was the main place in the life of Professor Vladimir Shlyapnikov where he developed as a scientist, teacher, and administrator, contributing to the improvement of higher medical education. As a result, he was appointed head of the Main Directorate of Educational Institutions of the Ministry of Health of the Soviet Russia, where he worked from 1978 to 1988. At the same time, he was a member of the board of the All-Union Society of Pathologists and a member of the editorial board of the scientific journal «Archive of Pathology». The last three years before his untimely death, he was deputy chairman of the Higher Attestation Commission of the USSR. During his work in the cities of Kuibyshev and Moscow, Professor Vladimir Shlyapnikov held many republican conferences on various issues of science, teaching, and carried out scientific research. Under his editorship, 4 thematic collections were published, and a monograph, unique in world and Russian literature, «Atelectasis and Atelectatic Pneumonia» (1978) was published. His achievements have not lost their significance even today.

Anniversary article dedicated to the 70th anniversary of Doctor of Medical Sciences, Honored Scientist of the Russian Federation and Honored Scientist of the Udmurt Republic, Professor of the Human Anatomy Department of the Izhevsk State Medical Academy, Professor Viktor Chuchkov.

The memorable anniversary article is dedicated to the 80th anniversary of the birth of Doctor of Medical Sciences, Honored Worker of Higher Education of the Russian Federation, Honorable Worker of Higher Education of the Russian Federation, Professor Anatoly Rodionov, who worked at the Saint-Petersburg State University Morphology Department.